How Relevant Are the Early Theories of Le Bon and Freud?

How Relevant Are the Early Theories of Le Bon and Freud? How relevant are the early theories of Le Bon and Freud in comparison to more contemporary theories of crowds? One of the earliest theories of crowd behaviour was presented by Gustav Le Bon in 1895, which he referred to as group mind theory (Le Bon, 1895). He viewed crowd behaviour as acting according to primitive impulses which are lacking in reasoning and rationality. Le Bon proposed that individuals in a crowd behave in accordance with a ‘law of mental unity of crowds’ and no longer identify themselves as individuals, instead becoming anonymous members of a group who lose their sense of self and responsibilities (Bendersky, 2007). They become easily aroused or agitated, and descend into barbarism whereby individual conscience is overtaken by the ‘law of mental unity’ (Le Bon, 1908). Due to their large numbers and anonymity, the crowd gains a sense of strength and power, leading to a ‘special state, which much resembles the state of fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds himslf in the hands of the hypnotiser’ (Le Bon, 1908; Ginneken, 1992 : 131), rendering the individual no longer conscious of his actions. Despite its lack of evidence, Le Bon’s ‘mob psychology’ became a popular theory and continues to be a powerful social influence, including by those in authority (Banyard, 1989). Similarly to Le Bon, Freud (1922) proposed that the collective mind is led almost exclusively by the unconscious. According to Freud (1922), the crowd ‘unlocks’ the individual unconscious mind; the super ego, or conscience, which he maintained controls civilised behaviours, is exceeded by the uncivilised id impulses, or instinctual drive part of the psyche, as provoked by the leader of the crowd. Likened to the hypnosis state identified by Le Bon, identification with and desire for approval from the leader suspends the super ego (Freud, 1922) and associated normal judgement subdues the internalised values of right and wrong and impulse control. Interestingly, Freud identifies that crowd members accept the influence of the group due to a need to feel in harmony with the power the group and its leader exerts, observed in later studies of conformity (Hogg Vaughan, 2005). In later years, Freud (1949) moves beyond his basic drive theory towards the acknowledgment and importa nce of social relationships, such as that of the family, leading to advancements in the area of object relations. Le Bon’s observations of the behaviour of crowds led to the development of a concept referred to as deindividuation, which was first introduced in the 1950s (Festinger et al. 1952). While early theories of crowds suggested that they acted as a primitive mob, Deindividuation theory formed a modern counterpart to this idea. Zimbardo (1969) based his approach largely on Le Bon’s general perspective by proposing that people in crowds experience deindividuation; a loss of their own personal identity, enabling them to merge anonymously into the crowd. His proposal that this loss of identity means that primitive, uncivilised tendencies emerge and people are then prepared to act in ways that are aggressive, cruel and anti-social, compared to how they may act as individuals, is similar to the early observations and theories put forward by both Le Bon and Freud. Early explanations of the effects of deindividuation suggested that a reduced sense of public accountability weakens the normal restraints against impulsive and aggressive behaviour (Festinger et al. 1952; Zimbardo, 1969). Explanations of deindividuation have however evolved over the decades; from a focus on loss to the finding that cues that are specific to the situation evoke social norms that guide behaviour within anonymous groups, leading to a reformulation of the mental processes involved in deindividuation (Diener, 1980). This view holds that situations that reduced public accountability, such as group size (Mann, 1981) and anonymity, do not simply lead to a loss of the salience of people’s personal identities but leads to the loss of objective self-awareness (Diener, 1980). The salience of group identities is enhanced and consequently, individuals in the crowd are more responsive to tensions within the group, increasing the potential for disorder (Schweingruber, 2000). This more recent explanation suggests that these same features of group situations promote greater conformity to situation-specific social norms. Emergent norm theory represented a shift from the earlier theories which focussed on pathological crowd behaviour (Reicher, 2001), by considering crowd behaviour as a norm-governed behaviours which are evident in all types of groups. According to Turner Killian (1972), the fact that a crowd has no formal organisation to regulate behaviour makes it distinctive. The uniformity of the crowd is an illusion created by the distinct actions of prominent crowd members (Turner, 1964). These acts imply a norm, and consequently there is a pressure to conform to these norms, which is likely to increase the potential for antisocial behaviour (Cabinet Office, 2009). Emergent norm theory one of the first to refer to crowd behaviour as normal (Reicher, 2001) and allows researchers to consider collective action and behaviour as normal social processes which possess internal coherence, bound by rules and norms. It does not however account for cultural variations in crowd behaviours (Reicher, 2001). The social identity model of crowd behaviour is based on social identity theory and self-categorisation theory (Turner et al. 1987). Social Identity Theory (SIT) differs from the other positions, in stressing that control of the crowd occurs via a new shared social identity (Reicher, 1996a; Stott Reicher, 1998a) rather than a loss of identity or of control over their behaviours. It proposes that when social identity is salient, group behaviour will occur irrespective of anonymity and that people interact with other people as representatives of their social group, which acts as an interface which shape their interactions (Reicher, 2001). Importantly, SIT proposes that control comes from the individual rather than from pressure from others, so when an individual identifies with the crowd, they accept and adhere to the crowd norms as their own. As with Emergent Theory, the norms are evident in the cultural, ideological, political and situationally constructed norms. The SIT fundamental principle of a shared social identity has remained an important concept in subsequent studies of individual behaviours within crowds. Le Bon’s early theories about crowd behaviour led to important research within the area of crowd behaviour and remains important due to the influence his perspective has had in later and more recent theories of collective and crowd behaviours. His general perspective was used in the research on deindividuation, which conveys the power of situations in determining people’s behaviour in a variety of large group situations and remains prominent in the study of group behaviour (Reicher et al. 1995). However, it makes implicit value judgements about crowds, dwells on loss, and suggests that people in crowds lose all manner of rational thinking. While it appears that deindividuation plays a role in understanding the antisocial behaviour tendencies of crowds, research into crowds and the way that people in crowds perceive what is happening, suggests that his theory is not as powerful as described. Freud’s (1922) Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego is one of his most significant contributions to understanding mass psychology and led to many subsequent studies on mass psychology and group dynamics. More recent studies suggest that crowd behaviour is more rational and structured that it is often presented as being. Contemporary theories of crowd behaviour discard the specifics of these earlier approaches and instead move this area of study forward by considering how a norm emerges from within the crowd, which enabled social psychologists to view collective behaviour as a social process bound by social norms. Social Identity Theory enables understanding of the order and purpose of the crowd in terms of the common identity of its members. Theories of crowd behaviour, such as SIT (Tajfel Turner, 1979) and deindividuation theory (Festinger et al. 1952) suggest that crowds often behave in a common manner in yielding to the social influence of the crowd (Myers, 2005). Individual crowd members do however differ in their vulnerability to social influence therefore variables within the situational context may influence behavioural outcomes. Theories of crowd behaviours have significantly evolved over the decades since the ideas put forward by Le Bon and Freud. They are not taken into account in the consideration of crowd behaviours in the present time like more contemporary theories such as the social identity model of crowd behaviour (Cabinet Office, 2009). However, they do present in the evolution of the associated research in the consideration of the development of the ideas specific to crowd behaviour. With the continued development of theories such as the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) (Klein et al. 2007), which retains the fundamental principle of anonymity (Cabinet Office, 2009), and the Elaborated Social Identity Model of crowd behaviour (ESIM) (Drury Reicher, 1999), research is beginning to reach an analysis which brings together many levels of explanation, which is needed within the area of crowd behaviour research.

Are school lunches actually healthy? Essay

Don’t you think that school lunches should start providing healthy lunches? You will not like to be surprised by a hair or something disgusting in your food. Is there’s times that when you eat school lunches and you’re waiting in line you see the food and think are these school lunches actually healthy? In the past 10 years schools actually provided unhealthy school lunches. The school lunches contain about the same amount of fat as a happy meal at McDonalds’ does. In my opinion I think that school lunches aren’t actually healthy. When you are eating you need to make sure you’re eating the right amount of calories. In school lunches aren’t as healthy as you think. The school lunches don’t provide the right amount of calories you should consume in one of your meals. When you’re eating more calories than what you usually need it could lead you to some serious health problems. The health problems that you can when you aren’t eating the amount of calories you need are high cholesterol, high blood pressure, or even diabetes. In the website called American diabetes association it says that people that eat a lot of sugar could get diabetes. Students are consuming 30%-50% of their calories they need in one meal. Teenage girls need about 1800-2400 calories per day. Teenage boys need about 1800-2600 calories per day. In the website called myfitnesspal.com it states that the pizza given at school contains 332 calories. The 1% milk contains 140 calories. There are some students that eat more than 3 slices of pizza which is actually bad because in just eating 3 slices they’re consuming about 1328 calories. Same with the milk there some students that drink about 2-3 milks which is also bad because if they’re drinking the chocolate milk they’re consuming a lot of sugar. The students need to consume at least 500-600 calories only in one meal. In my opinion I also think that school lunches aren’t actually healthy because some of the food that is given at lunch contains pink slime. Especially the burgers and chicken nuggets contain it. Pink slime is processed beef that was originally used in pet food. Pink slime is often contaminated with dangerous bacteria such as coli. Pink slime is really bad because is treated with ammonium hydroxide to kill bad germs. Even thought the United States department of agriculture believes that the pink slime is totally safe, pink slime is still treated with ammonia. Pink slime has been used in schools for many years. Food that contains pink slime has been served since the meat developed in the 1990’s. I can tell that parents were getting kind off upset about the food been served at school. I could tell this because the parents of the students started complaining about the food at school that contain pink slime, the united states department of agriculture gave them a choice which was keep buying food that contains pink slime or other beef products that didn’t. School lunches aren’t just unhealthy they’re also unsanitary. Most of the time you’ll be finding hair in your school lunches. When you find hair in your school lunches is because the people serving the food don’t wear the hair nets. Not only finding hair in your school lunches makes the school food unsanitary but another thing that makes the school food be unsanitary is not cooking the food right. There are times that you’re waiting line to get served and you look at the food and see that it has a different color than what it should look like. A person from the Oakland press wrote that the Pontiac school district program had been closed. They closed it down because of unsanitary conditions, this includes rodent infestation. Starbuck middle school needed to shut down their whole sanitary system. They needed to shut it down because many students had been complaining about the tortillas. The tortillas had been causing illness to some students. I realize that there’s has been a little bit of progress on the school lunches. We all know that Michelle Obama has been doing this thing to change the school lunches. She limited the calories that are supposed to be giving at school. Now the food giving at school has to be 850 calories. She removed all the bad things that were giving to us for example all the cookies and the read which were sweet and contain a lot of sugar. Now she’s providing more vegetables and fruits. However the school lunches still contain a lot of calories, pink slime, and are unsanitary. School lunches need to start been healthier. We are still hoping that the schools provide healthier food with not a lot of calories, not food or beef products that contain pink slime, and we also hope that the school lunches start been more sanitary. So far most of the schools in the country are providing unhealthy lunches.

Analysis and Summary of If by Rudyard Kipling

English ISU Rudyard Kipling was born in 1865 and through the years of living in Bombay, he learned about the British Empire. Kipling gave much too English literature and wrote poetry, short stories, and novels1. When Kipling was five, his parents sent him to boarding school in England so he could learn more about his British background. While living in England, Kipling was inspired by the imperialistic views of the British demonstrated around the world. During his school years, Kipling had a very difficult at boarding school. He was physically abused throughout his time in college.After finishing college in 1882, he returned back to India to work as a journalist and editor. Also in 1882, Kipling married an American woman Caroline Balestier and immediately moved to America to live with her. He stayed in Vermont until 1899, and went back alone to England to write literature. The majority of his poems dealt with his opinion of inspiration and imperialism. An analysis of â€Å"If† and â€Å"The White Man’s Burden† makes it clear that Rudyard Kipling uses literary devices effectively to fortify his message of inspiration and imperialism. If† is one of Kipling’s best known poems and it contains one of his most powerful messages of inspiration. In the beginning of the second stanza in â€Å"If†, Kipling uses personification â€Å"If you can dream- and not make dreams your master. † The beginning of the stanza focuses on reality; dreaming is good, but do not let it take control of yourself. Meaning, there are other important goals in life that are needed to be achieved. The second personification used by Kipling is on line 10 and 11 â€Å"If you can meet with triumph and disaster/ and treat those two imposters the same. This explains that failure is a benefit; mistakes are guaranteed to happen. No one is perfect and people learn from their missteps. The final personification on line 21 and 22 Kipling uses is â€Å"If yo u can force your heart and nerve and sinew/ To serve your turn long after they are gone. † This means to put your heart and nerve into your actions in the future and learn from the past. Also, having to accept the past and move on from it with your heart and gut. Alliteration is expressed twice in â€Å"If† to fortify Kipling’s thoughts and expressions throughout his poem.In line 12, the alliteration â€Å"treat those two imposters just the same. † emphasizes Kipling’s point of treating people with equity and respect. This quote implies how Kipling sees society's disapproval towards other people and he interprets that everyone including (imposters) should be fairly treated without criticism or judging based on societal influences. Another example of Alliteration is â€Å"With sixty seconds' worth of distance run,† on line 30, expressing Kipling’s opinion of time. Meaning to try and put an effort in constantly; even when feeling exhaust ed.Repetition and diction is used in â€Å"If† to strengthen Kipling’s message of inspiration. First off, â€Å"you† is used repeatedly in the poem to enrich Kipling’s message directly to the reader â€Å"The white man’s burden†, is one of Kipling’s best views of imperialism throughout the poem. In lines 19 and 20, Kipling uses the personification â€Å"Fill full the mouth of famine/ and bid the sickness cease. † Thus Kipling proclaims that the imperialist nation is going to aid and feed the conquered land.Kipling uses another personification in the sixth stanza â€Å"Nor call too loud on freedom/ To clock your weariness†. Thus, Kipling explores the meaning of individual freedom and that the use of individual freedom should not be an excuse to cover up ones weariness. Also, not aiding others by refusing to â€Å"Take up the White Man`s burden†. Anaphora is used in â€Å"The White Man’s Burden† to giv e emphasis to Kipling’s points. The first example is found in the fourth stanza, â€Å"The ports ye shall not enter, /The roads ye shall not thread,† have the same â€Å"The _ ye shall not _†.This represents Kipling’s repetitive thoughts of the imperial nation being denied to enter and live in the captured nation. Another example of anaphora is used in the sixth stanza â€Å"By all ye cry or whisper, / By all ye leave or do†. Kipling is poetically conveying the ruling of the conquered nation founded by the bequest of the imperial territory. Kipling also expresses the poems theme of Imperialism with the significant use of repetition and allusion. The line â€Å"Take up the White Man’s Burden-† is used at the start of each stanza establishing the basis of the poem.

Evil in Shakespeares Macbeth, Mary Shellys Frankenstein...

Evil in Shakespeares Macbeth, Mary Shellys Frankenstein and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Evil has always been in everyones lives. Some people have it more than others. There are places in the world where evil almost takes over. It crops up in all kinds of places, all over the world. In these texts, Macbeth, Frankenstein and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde there is a definite theme of evil throughout. In this essay I will write about what evil there is specifically in each of these texts. I will start with Macbeth because it has the most overriding evil out of the three. In the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, the leading character is Macbeth. He is†¦show more content†¦This troubles Macbeth as the witches just told him that he would become king. Macbeths evil thoughts now begin, he says in my way it lies. This is referring to Malcolm; he lies in Macbeths way to becoming king of Scotland. The king says that he will be going to Macbeths castle to celebrate the victory in the recent battle. Macbeth had written a letter to his wife, Lady Macbeth, about what had happened with the witches. She is also an evil person in the play. Some say just as much as Macbeth. She has planned a way to kill off King Duncan by the time the kings party arrive at their castle. She does this because she knows that Macbeth is too full o the milk of human kindness to do it himself. When Macbeth arrives home, his wife informs him of her plan to kill the king. He grudgingly agrees. Lady Macbeth tells him he must look like the innocent flower but be the serpent under it. This means he must act like everything is okay, but know underneath that he is going to kill the king. This of course in an evil thing to do, murder is one of the most evil things a person can commit. When the play was written people considered royalty to be Gods representative on earth, so killing the king was like killing God, unforgivable. The killing of Duncan went as follows: The chamberlains were drugged through their wine, and Lady Macbeth rung the bell twice as